Germanic Literature

"A house without books is like a body without a soul."

(Marcus Tullius Cicero)

The early Germans did not write much down, most information we have about them has been written by Roman or Medieval writers.

The most famous works are the "Germania", written by the Roman historian Tacitus, the "Risala" from the Arabian explorer Ibn Fahdlan, and the Edda's (both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda).

Another important work is the Codex Argenteus ("Silver Bible"), also known as the Wulfila bible, which preserved one of the oldest Germanic languages (Gothic) and is of such importance that the Danish museum that owns it only displays a copy of it and has hidden the original book in a secret place to avoid loss.

The "Getica" of Jordanes is also an important source of history and it gives a good description about the Goths during the Great Migrations.

Sometimes new sources are even being found that give us some more interesting information, an example of this was the discovery of unknown fragments of the Nibelungenlied in 2003 which was published in the "Dagblad van het Noorden" on March 29, 2003;

"Unknown fragments Nibelungenlied discovered

VIENNA - In the Austrian monastery of Zwettl unknown fragments of the Nibelungenlied have been discovered. It concerns pieces of text of at maximally three to eight centimeters (one to three inches). They probably date from the 12th century. The Nibelungenlied is the most important heroic epic in the Middle High German language. The anonymous writer combined multiple myths from the time around the year 500 of our era. In another Austrian monastery copies of the Nibelungenlied from the 13th century surfaced in 1998.

The subjects of the Nibelungenlied inspired the composer Richard Wagner in making his four-parted opera Der Ring des Nibelungen."

Most of the texts that were written by the ancient Germans themselves are runic inscriptions and texts that have been written down during the early Middle Ages after they were handed over from generation to generation, though most of the heathen texts that existed were probably burned during the Christianization of Europe, Roman texts about the Germans were also destroyed when they were written in pre-Christian times or when they mentioned heathen gods, whole libraries were burned an it is said that in some places the fires burned for days, think about what those texts might have learned us...

The problem with most texts is that they have either been tainted by the writer's personal opinion, or that they have been written in a much later time which probably caused the writer to rely on the stories of other people and to speculate, the most credible information is written by objective writers at the same time in which the events have happened, preferably by someone who understood the things he wrote about, like Jordanes for instance who was of Gothic descent himself.

Runic inscriptions:

The earliest known written records of the Germans are the runic writings that have been found in Scandinavia, Great-Britain, and the northern part of mainland Europe, most of those texts contain ownership tags, charms, brief descriptions of historical events, and religious messages.

The Edda's

A good example of Germanic literature that has been preserved is Skaldic poetry that was written down in Scandinavia and especially Iceland during the Middle Ages.

Most of those texts were written in rime form and were divided into stanza's (a group of lines that belong together like in an alinea), another aspect was the use of kennings; this was common in Germanic texts, which often used cryptical meanings for simple words, for instance a ship could also be called "stallion of the sea", or "rider of the waves", a battle could be called "swordmeeting" or "strengthcomparison", the god Thor could also be named "Mjöllnirs wielder" or "Redbeard", and Odin was "Sleipnirs rider" or "One eyed wisdom seeker", the amount of kennings that could be used were unlimited.

If you want to get a good impression of Germanic literature I advice you to read the Edda's, they may be written in a later time but they still use many old forms of poetry; especially the Poetic Edda is interesting because it contains many different styles, some of those texts are easily readible while others are so cryptical that translators have a hard time finding out what the text exactly says; the Edda may look simple at first sight, but if you go a little deeper into it you will notice that it is a literary piece of art.

Medieval folktales:

Many Medieval folktales are based on older Germanic legends, a good example are the "master marksman" legends like Robin Hood (English), Wilhelm Tell (Swiss), and Egill (Scandinavian), which are all believed to be based on an older Germanic legend about a master marksman called Aigilaz.

Another example is the "Hamlet" figure; he was already mentioned by Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum as the prince of Denmark, the Frisians and Icelanders also had legends that were very similar to the Hamlet myths which may point to an older Germanic origin; if one takes the main aspects of this various legends and compares them there are many similarities which may have probably been borrowed from this older legend that is now "forgotten", or isn't it? Shakespeare based his "Hamlet" on this old legends (which he may have heard somewhere) and his play is still shown today in many theaters across the world, I wonder if those theater visitors realize that they are watching a play that may be thousands of years old.

Medieval literature:

During the early Middle Ages many works were influenced by old Germanic poetry and legends, this later changed due to the heavy Mediterranean and Christian influences on Medieval literature but still a lot of old legends and poetry have been written down during that time which has preserved a lot of beautiful writings for future generations.

Most examples of Germanic literature are poetical interpretations of historical events that can be divided into 7 circles:

1. Nibelungen circle (mainly German)

2. Beowulf (Scandinavian)

3. Dietrich/Þidrek/Theodorik circle (Gothic)

4. Ermanarik circle (Gothic)

5. Attila (Etzel/Atli) poetry (all)

6. Hilde versus Gudrun epics (Scandinavian)

7. Offa and Finn sagas (Anglo-Saxon)

After some time most countries started to evolve their own literature styles; Icelandic literature for example was originally historically orientated like the "Islendingabók", a book about Icelandic history that was written by Ari Thorgilsson at the beginning of the 12th century, later Icelandic works also became fictitious like for instance the "Fornalda Sögur" (sagas with a mythical/heroic content), "Riddara sögur" (knight sagas), "Lygisögur" (fictitious adventure sagas), "Rímur" (rimes), and "Vikivökur" (ballads and dancing songs).

Many old Germanic legends were also Christianized by connecting them to a saint or a Christian king, a good example is the Saxon epic "Heliand" in which the original hero was probably replaced by Jesus, most of the Charlemagne poetry is also based on older legends where the original hero was replaced by Charlemagne and the heathen gods by the Christian one, though some of them have also been written in the time itself.

Scandinavian literature evolved into Kämpeviser (Danish/Norwegian) or Kämpevisor (Swedish), which were ballads and heroic poems that were based on old Germanic legends, another well-known literature style was Skaldic poetry, which was characterized by innovation, strict metrical laws, new formings, and "Kenningar" (kennings or poetrical descriptions).

A typically Germanic form of poetry was alliteration (also known as begin-rime), which was a rime that was not based on the rime of the last words like in most modern poems but on a rime of the words at the beginning of a sentence, here are two examples;

•  "Wine makes wild parties" (wi-wi)

•  "Remove all remaining garbage after the party" (rem-rem)

In the 9th century the Latin end-rime was taken over which eventually replaced the Germanic begin-rime.

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List of important early Medieval literature and authors:

(This list is still incomplete and only mentions the most important works and authors)

MHG = Middle High German

MD = Middle Dutch

ON = Old Norse

•  German literature:

Dietrich von Bern; this story was related to the Old Norse Þidrekssaga, "Dietrich von Bern" was the name under which the Ostrogothic king Theodorik the Great lived on in the sagas, in the story Dietrich is driven from his empire by Ermanarik and seeks help with Etzel (Attila), who is the king of the Huns; with his help he takes back his empire and besieges the city of Bern (this was not Bern in Switzerland but Verona in Italy), the story is very fictitious and deviates a lot from the historical facts.

Eckenlied; MHG poem from the 13th century that belongs to the circle of Dietrich von Bern.

Heliand; Old Saxon poem about the life of Jesus Christ, it was made in 835AD by order of Louis the Pious who wanted to use it for the Christianization of the Saxons, it depicts Jesus as a warrior and is a beautiful example of a mixture between Christian and Germanic literature.

Hildebrandslied; this story was written in the 8th century and has survived in an incomplete copy from the 9th century.

Hürnen Seyfrid; German ballad from the 15th century that tells about the adventures of Siegfried/Sigurd during his youth in a confusing way, despite the young age of this work it is an important representative of the Nibelungensage because it tells about events that are only briefly mentioned in the Nibelungenlied and the Edda's.

Jenaer songhandwriting; this work contains poems and the melodies that belong to those poems, which is very important for the knowledge of Medieval music, it was written in Germany during the 14th century and can be seen in the city of Jena since 1548.

Die Klage; ("The Mourning") MHG poem that is a continuation of the events from the Nibelungenlied, it tells about the events that took place after the events of the Nibelungenlied and the mourning about the death of so many nobles, the work also attempts to soften the guilt of Grimhild.

König Rother; ("King Rother") MHG poem from the 12th century that was written in Bavaria in a Low-Rhinian dialect; it tells about the adventures of the Langobardian king Rother that took place before his attack on the king of Constantinople with his army of Giants and his marriage with the king's daughter, king Rother has really existed; the Langobardian king Rothari (636-650).

Kudrun sage; MHG epic about the heroine Kudrun, it survived in a writing from 1230 but is much older and is of heathen origin.

Laurin / Kleiner Rosengarten; MHG epic from the 13th century that was written in Tirol (Austria) by an unknown poet, it tells about Dietrich von Bern who is going to liberate his sister and therefor has to enter the magical rosegarden of the Dwarven king Laurin who has taken her captive, the story takes place in Tirol and after a long battle Dietrich is victorious.

Merseburger charms; magical charms from the 10th century that were found on the cover of a book in the library of Merseburg.

Muspilli; OHG poem in alliteration that was written in the 9th century by one or more Bavarian monks; it tells about the fate of the human soul and the end of the world.

Nibelungenlied; MHG epic poem that was written down in its final form at the beginning of the 13th century, it is one of the sources of the Nibelungensage; a complex of stories from Germanic antiquity that are connected to eachother and have especially been poetically used in Germany and Scandinavia; they mostly tell about the life and death of Siegfried and the destruction of the Burgundian empire by the Huns.

Rabenschlacht; ("Raven-battle") MHG heroic poem, belonging to the circle of Dietrich von Bern (1275).

Rattenfängersage; ("Ratcatcher-saga") Medieval story about the disappearance of 30 children from the city of Hameln, they were told to have been lured away by the ratchatcher because the people had not payed him for his services, the story is believed to originate from 1284 and was written down in 1430.

Rolandslied; ("Song of Roland") the story of Roland, also known as Roeland or Roelant, who was a knight of Charlemagne; when he layed mortally wounded on the ground after a battle with the invading Saracenes he blew his horn to alarm the emperor and broke his sword Duranthal to keep it out of Muslim hands.

In Northern Germany there are many squares and markets that contain a stone statue of a knight that symbolizes Roland.

Rosengarten; ("Rose-garden") MHG heroic poem that was written in the 13th century, probably in Bavaria or Austria; it describes the battle between Siegfried and Dietrich von Bern, who both brought 11 followers, about the posession of Kriemhild's rosegarden in Worms, Dietrich eventually wins.

Another version of this poem can be found in the Old Norse Þidrekssaga ("Dietrich-saga").

Ruodlieb; oldest adventure- and knight novel in German and Latin from 1050, it contains a lot of fairy tales, legends, and historical facts that have been mixed together; it tells about the adventures of a young knight.

Sigenot; small MHG epic from the Dietrich circle, that describes the battle of Dietrich and Hildebrand against the Giant Sigenot, there are two versions of this story; the Älterer Sigenot ("Elder Sigenot") from 1250 and the Jüngerer Sigenot ("Younger Sigenot") from 1350.

Till Eulenspiegel; German counterpart of the Dutch Tijl Uilenspiegel. (see: Tijl Uilenspiegel)

Wartburgkrieg; ("Wartburg-war") anonymous MHG epic from the 13th century that tells about a fictitious singing-contest at the court of Herman von Thüringen at his castle Wartburg, the contest is held between Walther, Wolfram, the wizard Klingsor, and Heinrich von Ofterdingen, the first part is a contest of poems praising various kings, the 2nd part is a contest in riddles.

•  German authors:

Der Marner; MHG poet who lived in Swabia during the 13th century, he is know for his sharp criticism about the church and the pope, his most important work was the "Tagelied".

Der von Kurenberg; one of the oldest German singers who lived in Austria around 1170, he wrote about the love between husband and wife and used the same strophe-form as the Nibelungenlied.

Dietmar von Aist; Austrian singer (1140-1170) who wrote one of the oldest German tagelieder ("day-songs").

Hadamar von Laber; MHG poet from the 14th century, in 1340 he wrote "Die Jagd" ("The Hunt"), in which he depicted the lover as a hunting trophey and happyness, love, will, loyalty, and other abstract qualities as hunting dogs.

Heinrich der Glîchesaere; MHG poet who probably came from the Alsace, in 1180 he wrote "Reinhart Fuchs" which was based on a French source and was the predecessor of the Dutch "Van den vos Reynaerde".

Heinrich der Vogler; Austrian poet who lived in Tirol during the 13th century, in 1282 he wrote the poem "Dietrichs flucht" that contains an important part of the Dietrichpoetry that would have otherwise been lost.

Heinrich von Melk; early MHG poet from Austria, in 1160 he wrote "Von des tôdes gehugende"; a satirical work about the insignificance of our earthly life, and the "Priesterleben", in which he complained about the immorality of priests.

Heinrich von Morungen; German singer from Thuringia who wrote many lovesongs, in 1222 he became a knight.

Herbort von Fritzlar; MHG poet from Hessen, in 1210 he wrote an epic about the Troyan war ("Liet von Troie")

Hrotswitha von Gandersheim; German poetress who wrote many Christian poems in the 10th century.

Konrad Fleck; MHG poet of Alemannic origin, in 1220 he wrote the novel "Floire und Blanscheflûr" that was based on a French original.

Konrad von Würzburg; MHG poet (1230-1287) who wrote "Schwanritter", "Heinrich von Kempten", "Herzmäre", "Der welt lohn", "Engelhard und Engeltraut", "Die goldene schmiede", "Partonopier und Meliur", and "Buoch von Troye", he also wrote the following poems about saints; "Alexius", "Papst Silvester", "Panthaleon", "Nikolaus".

Neidhart von Reuenthal; MHG poet (1190-1242) who wrote rough dancing songs and village poetry.

Spervogel; MHG wandering poet from the 12th century, his poems had a didactical content and were often told in dialogue.

Steinmar; MHG lyrical poet from the 13th century, possibly an Alemannian, in realistic songs he sang about the joys of wine and a well filled dinnertable.

Stricker; MHG poet from the 13th century, probably from Austria, he edited the old Rolandslied of Konrad and published it as "Karl der Grosse", he also wrote the knight epic "Daniel von dem Blühenden Tal"; an adventure- and wondernovel, some small tales like "Maerem" and "Bîspel", and a collection of farces like "Der pfaffe Amis"; that was a predecessor of Tijl Uilenspiegel in which he complains about the problems of his time.

Tannhäuser; German singer from the 13th century, probably from Bavaria or Salzburg in Austria, he led an adventurous life and took part in the crusade of 1228, his life has later been used for the Tannhäuser saga; in this story he searches for the Venusberg where he stays for a while with a heathen goddess, after some time he regrets his sin and prays to Maria (the mother of Jesus Christ), makes a pilgrimage to Rome, and begs the pope for forgiveness; the pope tells him that god will only forgive him if his staff will get green leafs; Tannhäuser is disappointed and returns to the Venusberg where the goddess happily receives him, in the meantime green leafs are growing on the pope's staff and messengers are sent out to find Tannhäuser, but he stays forever in the Venusberg; Wagner has created an opera about Tannhäuser but at the end of that opera Tannhäuser dies as a regretful sinner while this did not happen in the original story.

Thietmar von Merseburg; German chronicler, bisshop of Merseburg, and adviser of emperor Heinrich II; he wrote the "Chronicon", which is the main source for the history of the Slavs.

Thomasin von Zerklaere; MHG poet (1186-1235) who wrote "Welsche gast" a work that pointed knighs and clergymen to their positive and negative sides.

Walther von der Vogelweide; German poet (1170-1230), he described the struggle for the German emperor crown and the friction between the emperor and the pope, in which he shows to be a loyal follower of the German emperor and an enemy of the pope and his powerplays, he does this in a very original and funny way, his most famous works are "Ich saz ûf eime steine" (1198), "Ich hôrte ein wazzer diezen" (1198), "Her keiser, sît ir willekommen" (1212), "Ahî, wie kristenliche nu der bâbest lachet" (1212), "Ich hân mîn lêhen" (1220), "Ouwê, war sint verswunden alliu miniu jâr" (1227).

Widukind von Corvey; German clergyman en chronicler (930-1000), he wrote about the history of the Saxons in his "Rerum Gestarum Saxonicarum Libri III"

Wolfram von Eschenbach; MHG epic poet (1170-1220) of knightly decendance, he often lived at the court of count Hermann von Thüringen where he also met the famous poet Walther von der Vogelweide, Wolfram knew a lot about German and foreign literature, Medieval jurisdiction, medicines, astronomy, gemology (knowledge of gems), and snakes.

He wrote about the happyness of marriage and his most important works are the "Parzifal" and the "Willehalm", though he was not able to complete this last one, the same goes for his "Titurel", which tells about the love between Schianotulander and Sigune, noteworthy is also his plea for more tolerance towards heathens.

•  Dutch literature:

Berte metten brede voeten; ("Bertha with-the broad feet") Old Dutch version of the French knight novels from around 1150, it tells about Bertha, who was the mother of Charlemagne.

De vier Heemskinderen; ("The four Homechildren") MD poem about the four sons (Adelaert, Reinout, Ritsaert, and Writsaert) of Charlemagne's sister, they are knights who all ride on one horse and are hated by Charlemagne who tries everything to doublecross them.

Het lied van heer Halewijn; ("The song of lord Halewijn") MD ballad about an evil lord who kills women; he lures them with his (symbolical) singing and then hangs them on a gallow, eventually he is decapitated by the daughter of a king.

This story is probably of a much older origin and may be related to old Germanic legends about a Wild Hunter who attacks women.

Karel ende Elegast; a MD knight poem that is often (unjustfully) considered to be a Franconian novel, since there is no Franconian original of this work it was probably a Dutch poem (most Medieval novels were copied from Franconian / French examples), it was presumably written in western Flanders and the oldest preserved version of this story dates from 1480; the story tells about Charlemagne who stays at his castle in Ingelheim where in his dreams he is visited by an angel who asks him to go out stealing at night, after he has left the castle at night he meets Elegast; a knight who he has banned from his retinue on false accusations and who now has to live from robbery, he posesses magical charms and does not recognize Charlemagne.

Charlemagne joins Elegast in a burglary but he does not reveal his identity to him, they break into the house of Eggheric, who is a vassal of Charlemagne, and when they are in his house they hear Eggheric speaking with his wife about a conspiracy to kill the emperor, Charlemagne realizes his life is under threat and that he was therefor asked to go out stealing, the next day Elegast challenges the conspirator to a duel and defeats him, after which Charlemagne restores his honour and gives him his sister as wife.

The story is probably of an older origin and may have been a later adaptation of a Germanic legend or fairy tale.

Mimir; Dutch epic that is probably related to the Mimir from Scandinavian mythology; it tells about a good smith who is named as the foster father of some heroes, according to the Þidrekssaga Völundr (Weland / Wieland) and Sigurd (Siegfried) have also been his students.

Parthenopeus van Blois; MD novel from the 13th century, tells about the love of king Clovis (Chlodowech) in 9000 verses, it is a Westflemish adaptation of a French original that was written by Denis Pyramus in 1150.

Tijl Uilenspiegel; (Till Eulenspiegel) comical character from German and Dutch folkbooks, he is a farmerboy who fools cityfolk; it was written 1500 in Low German.

Valentijn ende Nameloes; MD novel from the 14th century, 700 verses of the original text have survived in this Westflemish work.

Van den Bere Wisselau; ("About the Bear Wisselau") a 12th century MD poem of which only a few fragments have survived, it is one of the few remains of Germanic epics in Dutch literature, is was probably written in the eastern parts of the Dutch language area (the area of the Nethersaxon dialects); the story tells about the bear Wisselau and the hero Geernout who has defeated him, they decide to work together and join the retinue of king Karel (Charlemagne) with whom they take part in the battle against the Giantking Espriaen.

Van den Vos Reinaerde; ("About the Fox Reinaert") MD animal epic from the 13th century that was inspired on a German example; all animals except Grimbeert the badger come to the the "hofgeding" (lawsuit held at the court of a king) of king Nobel ("Noble") to complain about Reinaert the fox, Reinaert manages to refute all suspicions and wins the trust of the king who punishes Reinaerts enemies instead of the fox himself.

When Nobel has finally discovered the deceit he notices that Reinaert has already fled.

Walewijn; Dutch knight novel from around 12.000 verses, there is no known French original on which this work may have been based so it is therefor believed to be a purely Dutch work, it was probably written in western Flanders (1200AD).

•  Dutch authors:

Bernlef; blind Frisian singer from the 8th century, according to Alfrids "Vita Liudgeri" he sang about the heroic actions of his ancestors and the wars of kings, this testimony proves the existence of songs about heroes among the old Frisians, in 780AD Bernlef met st. Liudger who cured him from his blindness and converted him to Christianity, though that was probably made up later.

•  Old Norse/Icelandic literature:

Friþjofssaga; ON saga from 1300AD about the Norwegian hero Friþjof, who is the son of a farmer who falls in love with a princess named Ingibjorg, her two brothers try everything to end their relation because Ingibjorg is already betrothed to king Ring, but eventually their love will overcome.

Hamdismál; ON poem from the 9th century about the Ostrogothic king Ermanarik, according to the saga he ordered his wife to be trampled by horses after which her brothers Hamdir and Sorli took revenge, but during their revenge they were killed themselves; it is unknown whether this story is based on historical facts or that it is just fiction or anti-Ermanarik propaganda.

Landnámabók; ("Land-name-book" or "Land-taking-book") Icelandic book about the colonization of Iceland by Norwegian families, the book mentions 3000 names and is written in the 13th century.

Poetic Edda; (also known as Codex Regius) this work was written down by various Scandinavian poets in an attempt to preserve the old legends.

Prose Edda; (also known as Snorra Edda) this work was written by Snorri Sturluson as an inititaion to poetry for young skalds, it consists of 3 parts; "Gylfaginning" (Deluding of Gylfi), which is in dialogue and explains various stories from Germanic mythology, the 2nd part is "Skáldskaparmál" (poetry), which is also in dialogue and tells more about the use of kennings, this work also contains mythological stories, the 3rd and last part is "Háttatal" (list of poetry forms) that consists of 102 strophes of which every strophe is written in a different poetical form, it was written as both a learing tool for poets and as glorification of the Norwegian king Hákon the Elder and his adviser Skuli.

Þidrekssaga; ON poem about the life of Þidrek (Dietrich von Bern / Theodorik the Great), Rhinelandish and Low German songs served as sources for this work, which were probably brought to Scandinavia by merchants of the Hanseatic League in the 13th century, where they were written down in Old Norse by a Norwegian or an Icelander, possibly in the city of Bergen.

This Rhinelandish and Low German sources were much older than the High German epics and are therefor very interesting for modern research; the story tells about the journey of Þidrek (or Dietrich, Diederik, Theodorik, Theudrich, Thiudareiks, Þeudaraikaz, etc.) to England and his victory there, he is later expelled and becomes Attila's guest for a while, after that he goes back to Italy.

•  Old Norse/Icelandic authors:

Egill Skallagrimsson; Icelandic skald who lived around 900AD, his most important poems are "Hofudhlausn"; which he made to bring king Erik (who had sentenced him to death) to mercy, "Arinbjarnardrapa"; in which he sings about his friendship for Arinbjorn, and "Sonartorrek"; in which he mourns the early death of his sons in a very touching way.

Eyvind Skaldaspiller; (Skaldaspiller = "Poem-spiller") Norwegian skald who died in 990AD, he was the court poet of jarl Håkon the Good, whose praise he sings in his "Hakonarmál", he also praised Jarl Håkon's ancestors in the "Haleygjatal", his works are derived from older examples, hence his name.

Gunnlaugr Ormstunga; ("Battleflame Snaketongue") Icelandic skald who lived from 983 to 1009.

Saxo Grammaticus; Danish historian who lived from 1150 to 1220, he wrote about the history of Denmark in his "Gesta Danorum", which lists the period from the earliest time to 1184, the first 9 books also contain some epic poems and an interesting story about a hero named Starkad, who can also be found in some Icelandic sources though it is not entirely sure whether he has an historical origin; the story tells that Starkad was a descendant of the Giants and that Odin has protected him after his birth and gave him special powers against the will of the other gods.

Snorri Sturluson; (Norwegian: Snorre Sturlason) Icelandic poet, historian, and statesman (1178-1241), via his mother he was a descendant from Egill Skallagrimsson and became the leader of an important political party in Iceland, the Norwegian king invited him twice to get Iceland under his control via Snorri's party, Snorri did not cooperate with this and the king ordered him to be assassinated, it was later thought that Snorri had betrayed his country but modern historians have proven that this was incorrect and that he had in fact tried to safe Iceland from the oppression of the Norwegian king, Snorri is mostly known from his two most famous works; "Prose Edda" and "Heimskringla".

•  Anglo-Saxon literature:

Beowulf; biggest known Anglo-Saxon poem and also the first Germanic epic that was written down, it consists of 3183 verses and originates from the 8th century though it was saved in a handwriting from the 10th century; despite some Christian influences this poem is of great value for the study of Germanic heathenism.

Piers the Plowman; English story from 1377 about the legendary hero Robin Hood, the story symbolizes the Anglo-Saxon resistance against the oppressing Norman nobility, the story is probably related to Wilhelm Tell and other Germanic stories about a master marksman.

•  Anglo-Saxon authors:

Kynewulf; Anglo-Saxon poet from the 8th century, he wrote 4 poems that he signed with his name in runic writings; "Juliana", "Crist", "Elene", and "Fata Apostolorum".

•  French literature:

Chanson de Roland; ("Song of Roland") French knight-poem about Roland from the 12th century, it was based on the attempt of the Saracenes to spread the Islamic religion to Europe, for this they invaded southern France where they were attacked by Franconian knights who defeated them in a series of heroic battles, the German Rolandslied was also based on this story.

Fierabras; Old French poem belonging to the circle of Charlemagne (end 12th century), Fierabras is a Giant and the son of the Saracen king Balant, he conquers Rome and challenges Charlemagne and his knights but he is defeated by them and forced to be baptized, his sister Floripas fall in love with Gui de Bourgogne, who is one of Charlemagne's knights.

When Gui and some other knights have been taken prisoner by her father she helps them to escape, eventually Charlemagne comes to the rescue and captures king Balant, but he refuses to be baptized and is therefor murdered by Charlemagne, Floripas does accept her baptism and marries Gui.

Le pèlerinage de Charlemagne; ("The pilgrimage of Charlemagne") one of the oldest French heroic poems (12th century) about the adventures of Charlemagne during his pilgrimage.

•  French authors:

Francois Villon; French poet from the 15th century who was also a criminal in his past time, he mainly robbed churches and when he was not in jail he wrote rebellious poems about famous persons, he was later sentenced to death and while he was awaiting this in his cell he wrote a beautiful poem about his own execution, fortunately for him the execution was cancelled at the last moment and he was instead banished from Paris for 10 years, he wandered off and nobody ever heard from him again.